| A |
| A+ | 1988 | Arthur Whitney | Array | APL descendant for financial data analysis. Direct predecessor of K. |
| ABAP | 1983 | SAP SE | Procedural | Advanced Business Application Programming. Runs SAP ERP systems in enterprises worldwide. |
| ABC | 1987 | CWI Amsterdam | Procedural | Python's direct predecessor. Clean indented syntax, powerful string and list types. Guido … |
| ActionScript | 1998 | Macromedia / Adobe | OOP | Flash's scripting language. Powered interactive web animation and games for a decade befor… |
| Acton | 2020 | Acton Project | Functional | Actor model language compiling to native code via C. Distributed actors with database-like… |
| Ada | 1980 | Jean Ichbiah / U.S. DoD | Multi-paradigm | Safety-critical language for aerospace, defense, and railways. Named for Ada Lovelace. |
| Agda | 2007 | Ulf Norell | Functional | Dependently-typed functional language used as both programming language and proof assistan… |
| Agena | 2006 | Alexander Walz | Procedural | General-purpose procedural language with ALGOL-like syntax and Lua as an optional extensio… |
| Aldor | 1994 | IBM Thomas J. Watson | Functional | Strongly-typed functional language for computer algebra. Originally called A#. Used inside… |
| ALGOL 60 | 1960 | International Committee | Procedural | Ancestor of virtually all modern languages. Introduced block structure, lexical scoping, a… |
| ALGOL 68 | 1968 | Adriaan van Wijngaarden | Procedural | Radical redesign of ALGOL with orthogonal design. Extremely complex but influential on C, … |
| ALGOL W | 1966 | Niklaus Wirth & Tony Hoare | Procedural | Wirth and Hoare's proposed successor to ALGOL 60. Introduced record types and cleaner orth… |
| Alice | 1994 | Randy Pausch / CMU | OOP | 3D educational programming environment from Carnegie Mellon. Famous from Randy Pausch's La… |
| AMOS BASIC | 1990 | François Lionet | Procedural | BASIC for the Amiga with built-in sprite, sound, and game commands. Taught a generation of… |
| AMPL | 1985 | Fourer, Gay, Kernighan | Declarative | A Mathematical Programming Language. Used for optimization problems in operations research… |
| AngelScript | 2003 | Andreas Jonsson | OOP | Embedded C-like scripting for game engines. Automatic memory management, strong typing, an… |
| Ante | 2019 | Jake Fecher | Functional | Systems language with algebraic effects and compile-time code execution. Targets safety an… |
| Apex | 2006 | Salesforce | OOP | Salesforce's proprietary language for CRM customization. Java-like syntax running on Sales… |
| APL | 1966 | Kenneth Iverson / IBM | Array | A Programming Language using symbolic notation for array operations. Extraordinarily expre… |
| AppleScript | 1993 | Apple | Scripting | English-like scripting language for macOS automation. Controls applications through the Ap… |
| Arc | 2008 | Paul Graham / Robert Morris | Functional | Lisp dialect designed by Paul Graham (Y Combinator founder) for brevity and expressiveness… |
| ARexx | 1987 | William Hawes | Procedural | Amiga REXX dialect used to script Amiga OS applications. Inter-process communication via m… |
| Argus | 1983 | Barbara Liskov / MIT | Concurrent | Language for distributed systems with guardians (distributed objects) and atomic transacti… |
| ArnoldC | 2013 | laingwah | Procedural | Programming language using Arnold Schwarzenegger movie quotes as keywords. LISTEN TO ME VE… |
| Arturo | 2019 | Yanis Zafirópulos | Multi-paradigm | Clean, homoiconic language inspired by Rebol and LOGO. Designed for expressiveness and min… |
| Assembly (x86) | 1972 | Various / Intel | Low-level | Human-readable machine instructions for x86 processors. Essential for OS kernels, bootload… |
| ATS | 2004 | Hongwei Xi / Boston University | Functional | Applied Type System — a functional language where types encode program invariants and proo… |
| Austral | 2022 | Fernando Borretti | Procedural | Systems language with linear types for safe memory management — no GC, no borrow checker. … |
| AutoHotkey | 2003 | Chris Mallett | Scripting | Windows automation scripting. Hotkeys, macros, and GUI automation. Extremely popular in pr… |
| AutoLISP | 1986 | Autodesk | Functional | Lisp dialect embedded in AutoCAD. Automates CAD drawing operations. Still used in engineer… |
| Awk | 1977 | Aho, Weinberger, Kernighan | Procedural | Pattern scanning and text processing. One-liners replace pages of code. Named after its th… |
| B |
| B | 1969 | Ken Thompson / Bell Labs | Procedural | Typeless systems language descended from BCPL. Direct predecessor of C — Dennis Ritchie ad… |
| Ballerina | 2017 | WSO2 | Multi-paradigm | Network-aware language for cloud integration. JSON, XML, and service calls are first-class… |
| Bash | 1989 | Brian Fox / GNU | Scripting | Bourne Again SHell. The default shell on Linux and macOS. Billions of automation scripts r… |
| BASIC | 1964 | Kemeny & Kurtz / Dartmouth | Procedural | Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. The language of the personal computing r… |
| Batch | 1981 | IBM / Microsoft | Procedural | Windows batch scripting — .bat and .cmd files. GOTO, IF, FOR, environment variables. Trill… |
| BCPL | 1967 | Martin Richards / Cambridge | Procedural | Basic Combined Programming Language. Typeless systems language that inspired B, which insp… |
| BeanShell | 1999 | Pat Niemeyer | OOP | Java scripting language executing Java syntax interactively. Used in Jenkins CI, JEdit, an… |
| Beef | 2019 | Beeflang | OOP | Memory-safe systems language with a C#-like syntax and IDE-integrated live editing. Design… |
| Befunge | 1993 | Chris Pressey | Esoteric | Two-dimensional esoteric language. Program execution can travel in any of four directions … |
| Berry | 2021 | Guan Wenliang | OOP | Lightweight scripting for ESP32 embedded systems. 30 KB footprint with garbage collection.… |
| Birch | 2019 | Lawrence Murray | Functional | Probabilistic programming for Bayesian deep learning. Monte Carlo inference and automatic … |
| BitC | 2005 | Jonathan Shapiro / EROS Project | Functional | Functional systems language for writing OS kernels with formal verification goals. Explore… |
| BLISS | 1970 | W.A. Wulf / CMU | Procedural | Systems language used to write significant portions of the VAX/VMS operating system. No go… |
| BlitzBasic | 1994 | Mark Sibly / Blitz Research | Procedural | BASIC dialect for rapid 2D/3D game development. Blitz3D and BlitzMax followed. Introduced … |
| Bloom | 2011 | Neil Conway / Berkeley | Logic | Distributed programming language based on Datalog. Programs are sets of facts and rules co… |
| Bluespec | 2003 | Arvind / MIT | Functional | Haskell-based hardware description language. Synthesizes to RTL Verilog. Used for RISC-V c… |
| Boo | 2003 | Rodrigo B. de Oliveira | OOP | Python-influenced statically typed language for the .NET and Mono CLR. Duck typing with op… |
| Bosque | 2019 | Mark Marron / Microsoft Research | Functional | Regularized programming language designed to eliminate undefined behavior entirely. No loo… |
| Bourne Shell | 1979 | Stephen Bourne / Bell Labs | Scripting | The original Unix shell scripting language. Ancestor of Bash and all POSIX shells. Scripts… |
| BQN | 2020 | Marshall Lochbaum | Array | Array language in the APL tradition. Unicode-based syntax with consistent grammatical rule… |
| Brainfuck | 1993 | Urban Müller | Esoteric | Eight-instruction esoteric language. Turing-complete despite its minimalism. The canonical… |
| BrightScript | 2008 | Roku Inc. | Procedural | Scripting language for Roku streaming devices. Used by every Roku channel developer. |
| C |
| C | 1972 | Dennis Ritchie / Bell Labs | Procedural | The language that built the world. Portable, fast, and foundational to nearly every operat… |
| C++ | 1985 | Bjarne Stroustrup / Bell Labs | Multi-paradigm | C with OOP, templates, and the STL. Powers game engines, browsers, databases, and trading … |
| CAML | 1985 | Gérard Huet / INRIA | Functional | Categorical Abstract Machine Language. The precursor to OCaml. Introduced efficient compil… |
| Carbon | 2022 | Chandler Carruth / Google | Multi-paradigm | Experimental C++ successor with bidirectional interoperability. Aims to solve C++ complexi… |
| Carp | 2016 | Erik Svedäng | Functional | Lisp-like language with a borrow checker for safe systems programming. Compiles to C. No g… |
| Cecil | 1992 | Craig Chambers / UW | OOP | Object-oriented language with multi-methods and a module system. Research language influen… |
| Ceylon | 2011 | Gavin King / Red Hat | OOP | JVM/JS language by Hibernate's creator. Union types, flow-sensitive typing, and a modular … |
| CFML | 1995 | Allaire / Adobe | Procedural | ColdFusion Markup Language. Tag-based web scripting for rapid database-driven application … |
| Chapel | 2004 | Brad Chamberlain / Cray | Parallel | Parallel programming language for high-performance computing. Domain maps and locales for … |
| Chef | 2002 | David Morgan-Mar | Esoteric | Programs are written as cooking recipes. Data is measured in culinary quantities. Turing-c… |
| CHILL | 1980 | CCITT | Procedural | CCITT High Level Language for real-time telecommunications switching. Runs in telephone ex… |
| Chisel | 2012 | Jonathan Bachrach / Berkeley | Functional | Hardware Construction Language embedded in Scala. Generates synthesizable Verilog. Designe… |
| Chuck | 2003 | Ge Wang / Princeton | Procedural | Strongly-timed concurrent audio programming language. Real-time audio synthesis on servers… |
| Cilk | 1994 | Charles Leiserson / MIT | Parallel | C extension for parallel programming using a work-stealing scheduler. Influenced Intel TBB… |
| Clean | 1987 | Rinus Plasmeijer / Nijmegen | Functional | Pure lazy functional language. Uniqueness types solve I/O in pure contexts elegantly. Infl… |
| Clingo | 2008 | Torsten Schaub / Potsdam | Logic | Answer Set Programming system. Solves NP-hard combinatorial search by grounding Prolog-lik… |
| CLIPS | 1985 | NASA Johnson Space Center | Logic | C Language Integrated Production System. Rule-based expert system shell. Used in NASA spac… |
| Clojure | 2007 | Rich Hickey | Functional | Modern Lisp on the JVM with persistent immutable data structures and software transactiona… |
| CLU | 1975 | Barbara Liskov / MIT | OOP | First language to use clusters (abstract data types), iterators, and exception handling. D… |
| COBOL | 1959 | Grace Hopper / CODASYL | Procedural | COmmon Business-Oriented Language — reads like English. Processes $3 trillion in daily com… |
| Cobra | 2006 | Chuck Esterbrook | OOP | Python-influenced .NET language with contracts, nullable types, and listy comprehensions. … |
| Coconut | 2015 | Evan Hubinger | Functional | Functional programming superset of Python. Adds pattern matching, pipe operators, and lazy… |
| CoffeeScript | 2009 | Jeremy Ashkenas | Functional | Compiles to readable JavaScript. Significant whitespace, arrow functions, list comprehensi… |
| Common Lisp | 1984 | ANSI X3J13 Committee | Multi-paradigm | ANSI-standardized Lisp. Powerful macro system, CLOS for OOP, and restarts for error recove… |
| Concurrent Pascal | 1975 | Per Brinch Hansen | Concurrent | Pascal extended with monitors for concurrent programming. Proved that safe concurrent syst… |
| Cone | 2019 | Jonathan Goodwin | OOP | Memory-safe language for 3D web experiences. Multiple memory management strategies selecta… |
| Coq | 1984 | Thierry Coquand / INRIA | Functional | Interactive theorem prover. Programs and mathematical proofs are unified. Used to verify t… |
| CORAL 66 | 1966 | Royal Radar Establishment | Procedural | Common Real-time Applications Language for British military embedded systems. Safety-criti… |
| Cow | 2003 | Sean Heber | Esoteric | Esoteric language with 12 instructions — all variations of 'moo'. MOo, mOo, moO, MoO, MOO,… |
| CPL | 1963 | Christopher Strachey / Cambridge | Procedural | Combined Programming Language. Elegant and general but hard to implement. BCPL was created… |
| Crystal | 2014 | Ary Borenszweig / Manas Tech | OOP | Ruby-like syntax compiled to native binaries. Statically typed with type inference. Zero-c… |
| CUDA C | 2007 | NVIDIA | Procedural | C extension for NVIDIA GPU programming. Grid/block thread hierarchy, shared memory, and ke… |
| CUE | 2019 | Marcel van Lohuizen / Google | Declarative | Data validation language derived from GCL. Type constraints ensure configuration correctne… |
| Curry | 1995 | Michael Hanus et al. | Functional | Functional-logic programming language integrating Haskell-style FP with Prolog-style logic… |
| Cyclone | 2001 | AT&T Labs / Cornell | Procedural | Safe dialect of C with regions and tagged unions. Demonstrated C-compatible memory safety … |
| Cython | 2007 | Stefan Behnel & Robert Bradshaw | Multi-paradigm | Python superset compiling to C extensions. Add type annotations for C-level speed while ke… |
| D |
| D | 2001 | Walter Bright / Digital Mars | Multi-paradigm | Systems language aiming to be a better C++. Optional GC, ranges, templates, and built-in d… |
| Dafny | 2009 | K. Rustan M. Leino / Microsoft | Functional | Verification-aware language that proves correctness of programs automatically via Z3 SMT s… |
| Dart | 2011 | Lars Bak & Kasper Lund / Google | OOP | Client-optimized language for fast apps anywhere. AOT and JIT compiled. The backbone of Fl… |
| DASL | 1995 | Various | Declarative | Distributed Application Specification Language. Declarative description of distributed com… |
| Datalog | 1977 | Various / Codd era | Logic | Declarative logic programming language derived from Prolog. Used in databases, program ana… |
| Delphi | 1995 | Anders Hejlsberg / Borland | OOP | Object Pascal with a visual IDE. Dominated Windows desktop development in the late 1990s–2… |
| Dex | 2020 | Google Brain | Functional | Differentiable array programming language for ML research. Dependent types for safe indice… |
| Dhall | 2016 | Gabriel Gonzalez | Functional | Programmable configuration language guaranteed to terminate. Prevents Turing-complete foot… |
| DIBOL | 1970 | Digital Equipment Corporation | Procedural | DEC's business-oriented language for PDP minicomputers. Long-lived in VAX-based manufactur… |
| DM | 1998 | BYOND | OOP | Dream Maker — scripting language for the BYOND game engine. Tile-and-map awareness built i… |
| Dogescript | 2014 | remixz | Procedural | Such programming language. Many wow. Very compute. Doge-meme-inspired syntax — 'very x is … |
| Draco | 1982 | Chris Gray | Procedural | Pascal-like compiled language for the Amiga. Produced efficient native 68000 code. Signifi… |
| Dylan | 1992 | Apple / Carnegie Mellon | OOP | Lisp descendant with OOP and infix syntax. Apple's potential Objective-C successor. Now ma… |
| E |
| E | 1997 | Mark Miller / Electric Communities | OOP | Capability-secure object-oriented language. Promises (now Futures) and eventual sends for … |
| ECMAScript | 1997 | Ecma International | Multi-paradigm | The standard underlying JavaScript, ActionScript, and JScript. ECMAScript 6 (2015) moderni… |
| Eiffel | 1985 | Bertrand Meyer | OOP | Design by Contract built into the language. Preconditions, postconditions, and class invar… |
| ELAN | 1974 | CWI Amsterdam | Procedural | Educational LANguage designed for structured programming pedagogy. Clean block structure. … |
| Elixir | 2012 | José Valim | Functional | Functional, concurrent, fault-tolerant. Runs on the Erlang VM. Phoenix handles millions of… |
| Elm | 2012 | Evan Czaplicki | Functional | Purely functional language for browser apps. No runtime exceptions. The Elm Architecture i… |
| Emacs Lisp | 1985 | Richard Stallman / GNU | Functional | Lisp dialect embedded in GNU Emacs. Configures and extends the world's most extensible edi… |
| Emerald | 1987 | Eric Jul et al. / UBC | OOP | Distributed OOP language where objects can physically migrate between network nodes. Objec… |
| Emojicode | 2016 | Theo Belaire | OOP | Full-blown object-oriented language using emoji as syntax. 🍇...🍉 blocks, 🔡 strings, and 🖨 … |
| Epigram | 2004 | Conor McBride / Durham | Functional | Dependently-typed functional language designed around proof theory. Introduced several inn… |
| Erlang | 1987 | Joe Armstrong / Ericsson | Functional | Actor-model concurrency, hot code swapping, and fault tolerance. Built for telecom. Powers… |
| Erlang/OTP | 1991 | Ericsson | Functional | Erlang plus the Open Telecom Platform framework. OTP's behaviours (gen_server, supervisor,… |
| Esterel | 1983 | Gérard Berry / INRIA | Reactive | Synchronous reactive language for safety-critical embedded systems. Used in avionics fligh… |
| Eta | 2016 | Rahul Muttineni | Functional | Haskell-compatible language compiling to JVM bytecode. Full Java interop with Haskell's ty… |
| Euclid | 1977 | Butler Lampson et al. / Xerox | Procedural | Verifiable systems language for provably correct programs. Ancestor of Modula-2 and an ear… |
| Euphoria | 1993 | Robert Craig | Procedural | Simple, fast scripting language with automatic garbage collection. Was commercially sold b… |
| Ezhil | 2011 | Muthiah Annamalai | Procedural | Tamil programming language — allows programming in the Tamil script and language. Educatio… |
| F |
| F# | 2005 | Don Syme / Microsoft Research | Functional | Functional-first on .NET. Type providers, computation expressions, and async workflows. Do… |
| F* | 2013 | Microsoft Research / INRIA | Functional | Dependently-typed ML dialect for program verification. Used to prove cryptographic protoco… |
| Factor | 2003 | Slava Pestov | Stack-based | Concatenative stack-based language with a sophisticated image-based development environmen… |
| Falcon | 2003 | Giancarlo Niccolai | Multi-paradigm | Embeddable scripting language with OOP, functional, and procedural features. Designed to b… |
| Fantom | 2005 | Brian and Andy Frank | OOP | JVM/CLR/JavaScript language with a pod-based module system. Nullable types before it was f… |
| Faust | 2002 | Yann Orlarey / GRAME | Functional | Functional Audio Stream language. Compiles DSP algorithms to C, LLVM, or WebAssembly. Used… |
| Felix | 2006 | John Skaller | Functional | Functional language compiling to C++. First-class coroutines, channels, and ML-style types… |
| Fennel | 2016 | Phil Hagelberg (technomancy) | Functional | Lisp that compiles to Lua. Full access to the Lua standard library with Lisp's macro power… |
| Fish | 2005 | Axel Liljencrantz | Scripting | The Friendly Interactive SHell. Autosuggestions, syntax highlighting, and sensible default… |
| Flix | 2016 | Magnus Madsen / Waterloo | Functional | Functional and logic language on the JVM — Datalog as a first-class feature inside a stron… |
| FLOW-MATIC | 1955 | Grace Hopper / Remington Rand | Procedural | The first English-like programming language. Direct predecessor to COBOL. Proved business … |
| Forth | 1970 | Charles Moore | Stack-based | Stack-based, interactive, and radically minimal. Runs in 4KB of RAM. Influenced PostScript… |
| Fortran | 1957 | John Backus / IBM | Procedural | The first compiled high-level language. Still runs weather forecasting, climate models, an… |
| FoxPro | 1984 | Fox Software | Procedural | xBase database language with a fast embedded engine. Dominated small business computing. A… |
| FP | 1977 | John Backus / IBM | Functional | Functional Programming language introduced in Backus's 1978 Turing Award lecture. Demonstr… |
| FreeBASIC | 2004 | Andre Victor | Procedural | Free open-source BASIC compiler producing native binaries. Compatible with many QuickBASIC… |
| Futhark | 2014 | Martin Elsman / DIKU | Functional | Purely functional data-parallel language compiling to CUDA and OpenCL GPU code. Parallel m… |
| G |
| Gambas | 1999 | Benoît Minisini | OOP | BASIC-like OOP language and visual IDE for Linux. Popular for quickly building desktop GUI… |
| GAMS | 1976 | Alexander Meeraus / World Bank | Declarative | General Algebraic Modeling System. Declarative language for large-scale optimization. Stan… |
| GAP | 1986 | Martin Schönert / RWTH Aachen | Procedural | Groups Algorithms Programming — the standard tool for computational abstract algebra. Used… |
| GCL | 2001 | Google | Functional | Google Configuration Language — internal predecessor to Jsonnet and CUE. Lazy functional c… |
| GDScript | 2014 | Juan Linietsky / Godot | OOP | Python-like language built into the Godot game engine. First-class game object types, sign… |
| Genie | 2008 | Jürg Billeter | OOP | Python-like syntax that compiles to Vala and then C. Alternative syntax for GNOME's GLib/G… |
| Gherkin | 2009 | Aslak Hellesøy / Cucumber | Declarative | Given/When/Then plain-text syntax for Behavior-Driven Development. Not Turing-complete but… |
| Glass | 2008 | Max Shawabkeh | OOP | Esoteric object-oriented language with a stack-based evaluation model and cryptic instruct… |
| Gleam | 2019 | Louis Pilfold | Functional | Strongly-typed functional language for the BEAM Erlang VM. Compiles to Erlang and JavaScri… |
| GLSL | 2004 | OpenGL ARB / Khronos | Procedural | OpenGL Shading Language. C-like language for GPU vertex and fragment shaders. Runs on ever… |
| Gluon | 2016 | Gluon Authors | Functional | Statically typed embeddable functional language with Hindley-Milner type inference. Design… |
| GML | 1999 | Mark Overmars | Procedural | GameMaker Language — scripting for the GameMaker Studio engine. Used by indie developers w… |
| GNU Guile | 1993 | GNU Project | Functional | GNU's official Scheme implementation designed as an extension language. Embeds into GNU Ma… |
| GNU Octave | 1988 | John Eaton | Array | Open-source MATLAB-compatible language for numerical computation. Matrix operations, plott… |
| Go | 2009 | Pike, Thompson, Griesemer / Google | Multi-paradigm | Compiled, garbage-collected, concurrent. Goroutines and channels. Dominates cloud infrastr… |
| Golo | 2012 | Julien Ponge / INSA Lyon | OOP | Lightweight dynamic JVM language with a minimal runtime. Designed for research on dynamic … |
| GPSS | 1961 | Geoffrey Gordon / IBM | Declarative | General Purpose Simulation System. The first major discrete-event simulation language. Mod… |
| Grace | 2012 | Black, Homer, Noble / Victoria | OOP | Educational language designed to introduce students to OOP safely. Used in CS1 courses. Ob… |
| Grain | 2018 | Oscar Spencer | Functional | Strongly typed functional language compiling to WebAssembly. Designed for the post-JavaScr… |
| Groovy | 2003 | James Strachan | OOP | Dynamic JVM language with full Java interop. Powers Gradle (Android builds) and the Grails… |
| GW-BASIC | 1983 | Microsoft | Procedural | Microsoft's BASIC interpreter for the IBM PC. The entry point to programming for millions … |
| H |
| Hack | 2014 | Facebook | OOP | PHP with a gradual type system, generics, async/await, and lambdas. Powers Facebook's enti… |
| Hamler | 2020 | EMQ Technologies | Functional | Haskell-like strongly-typed functional language targeting the Erlang BEAM VM. Brings Haske… |
| Harbour | 1999 | Antonio Linares | OOP | Open-source xBase/Clipper compiler. Runs legacy dBASE and Clipper business applications on… |
| Haskell | 1990 | FPCA Committee | Functional | The benchmark pure functional language. Lazy evaluation, typeclasses, monads, and Hindley-… |
| Haxe | 2005 | Nicolas Cannasse | Multi-paradigm | Cross-platform toolkit compiling to JavaScript, Python, C++, Java, C#, PHP, and more. One … |
| Hazel | 2017 | Cyrus Omar / Michigan | Functional | Live programming environment with typed holes — programs with missing pieces remain evalua… |
| HCL | 2014 | HashiCorp | Declarative | HashiCorp Configuration Language. Infrastructure-as-code for Terraform, Packer, and Consul… |
| HLSL | 2002 | Microsoft | Procedural | High Level Shading Language for DirectX. C-like GPU shader language for Windows graphics p… |
| HolyC | 2005 | Terry Davis | Procedural | 'More than C, less than C++' — native language of TempleOS. Ring-0 execution, no protectio… |
| Hoon | 2013 | Curtis Yarvin / Tlon | Functional | Purely functional language for the Urbit OS. Rune-based syntax — ASCII digraphs replace ke… |
| Hope | 1980 | Rod Burstall et al. / Edinburgh | Functional | Early functional language with algebraic data types and pattern matching. Directly influen… |
| Hy | 2013 | Paul Tagliamonte | Functional | Lisp dialect embedded in Python. Full access to the Python ecosystem with Lisp's macro sys… |
| Hylo | 2023 | Dimi Racordon et al. / EPFL | Functional | Value-oriented systems language eliminating data races without a borrow checker. Algebraic… |
| HyperTalk | 1987 | Bill Atkinson / Apple | Procedural | English-like scripting for HyperCard stacks. Revolutionary in its readability. Influenced … |
| I |
| Icon | 1977 | Ralph Griswold / Arizona | Procedural | Distinctive goal-directed evaluation — expressions can succeed, fail, or produce multiple … |
| IDL | 1977 | David Stern / RSI | Array | Interactive Data Language for scientific array analysis. Dominant in astronomy, satellite … |
| Idris | 2011 | Edwin Brady / St Andrews | Functional | Dependently typed functional language. Types can depend on values, enabling proofs of prog… |
| Idris 2 | 2020 | Edwin Brady / St Andrews | Functional | Redesigned Idris with Quantitative Type Theory. Tracks resource usage in types — linear an… |
| Imba | 2015 | Sindre Aarsæther | OOP | Compiled web language with built-in reactive elements. Produces extremely fast DOM updates… |
| Inform | 1993 | Graham Nelson | Declarative | Natural-language-like programming for interactive fiction. Inform 7 reads as English prose… |
| INTERCAL | 1972 | Woods & Lyon / Princeton | Esoteric | The original joke programming language. Designed to have no resemblance to any existing la… |
| Io | 2002 | Steve Dekorte | OOP | Prototype-based language inspired by Self, Smalltalk, and Lisp. Everything is a message se… |
| Ioke | 2008 | Ola Bini | OOP | Prototype-based language on the JVM combining Io, Lisp, and Smalltalk ideas. Homoiconic wi… |
| Isabelle | 1986 | Larry Paulson / Cambridge | Functional | Generic interactive theorem prover. Isabelle/HOL proved the seL4 microkernel correct and t… |
| ISWIM | 1966 | Peter Landin | Functional | If you See What I Mean — theoretical language introducing let-expressions, where-clauses, … |
| J |
| J | 1990 | Kenneth Iverson & Roger Hui | Array | APL successor using ASCII digraphs instead of symbols. Tacit programming, forks, and hooks… |
| Janet | 2018 | Calvin Rose | Functional | Clojure-inspired Lisp with C interop and no runtime dependency. Embeddable scripting for C… |
| Janus | 1982 | Christopher Lutz | Procedural | Reversible programming language — every program can run both forwards and backwards. Desig… |
| Jasmin | 1996 | Jon Meyer | Low-level | JVM assembly language. Human-readable mnemonics for JVM bytecode. Used for teaching JVM in… |
| Java | 1995 | James Gosling / Sun Microsystems | OOP | Write Once, Run Anywhere. The JVM ecosystem. Dominated enterprise software for two decades… |
| JavaScript | 1995 | Brendan Eich / Netscape | Multi-paradigm | Created in 10 days. The only language native to every browser. Now runs servers, desktop a… |
| Jinx | 2023 | Research Community | Concurrent | Experimental concurrent language exploring structured concurrency with algebraic effects. … |
| JOVIAL | 1960 | Jules Schwartz / SDC | Procedural | Jules' Own Version of the International Algebraic Language. Used for U.S. military avionic… |
| Joy | 2001 | Manfred von Thun | Stack-based | Purely functional concatenative language. Composition replaces function application. No la… |
| JScript | 1996 | Microsoft | Multi-paradigm | Microsoft's JavaScript dialect for Internet Explorer and Windows Scripting Host. Enabled w… |
| Jsonnet | 2014 | Dave Cunningham / Google | Functional | Data templating language extending JSON with functions, variables, and imports. Standard f… |
| Julia | 2012 | Bezanson, Edelman, Karpinski, Shah | Multi-paradigm | High-performance numerical computing with Python-like syntax. Solves the two-language prob… |
| K |
| K | 1993 | Arthur Whitney | Array | Extremely terse array language for financial data analysis. Ancestor of Q. Used in high-fr… |
| Kernel | 2009 | John Shutt / WPI | Functional | Lisp where fexprs are first-class — operands are never evaluated unless explicitly request… |
| Kit | 2019 | Various | Multi-paradigm | HTML component system for building web UIs with simple syntax and zero JavaScript overhead… |
| Kitten | 2012 | Jon Purdy | Stack-based | Statically typed concatenative language with algebraic effects. Combines Haskell's type sy… |
| Koka | 2012 | Daan Leijen / Microsoft Research | Functional | Algebraic effect handlers built into the type system. Cleans up monadic composition with s… |
| Kotlin | 2011 | JetBrains | OOP | Concise, null-safe, and expressive on the JVM. Google's preferred Android language. Corout… |
| KQL | 2016 | Microsoft | Declarative | Kusto Query Language for Azure Data Explorer. Pipe-based log analytics querying terabytes … |
| KRL | 1976 | Daniel Bobrow / Xerox PARC | OOP | Knowledge Representation Language. Early frame-based AI system at Xerox PARC. Influenced S… |
| L |
| LabVIEW G | 1986 | National Instruments | Dataflow | Visual dataflow programming for instrument control and data acquisition. Wires connect nod… |
| Lasso | 1995 | Blue World Communications | OOP | Web scripting language for FileMaker and database-driven websites. Has survived many platf… |
| Lazy K | 2002 | Ben Rudiak-Gould | Functional | Purely functional combinatory logic language — computation via S, K, I combinators only. E… |
| Lean | 2013 | Leonardo de Moura / Microsoft | Functional | Interactive theorem prover and functional language. Lean 4 is increasingly used for mathem… |
| Lean 4 | 2021 | Leonardo de Moura / Microsoft | Functional | Major rewrite of Lean as both theorem prover and functional programming language. Powers M… |
| Lex | 1975 | Mike Lesk / Bell Labs | Declarative | Lexical analyser generator. Declarative specification of tokens using regular expressions.… |
| Limbo | 1995 | Sean Dorward et al. / Bell Labs | Concurrent | Concurrent language for the Inferno OS. Channels and lightweight processes directly inspir… |
| Lingo | 1988 | Macromedia | OOP | Director scripting language. Powered interactive CD-ROMs, kiosks, and early web multimedia… |
| Lisp | 1958 | John McCarthy / MIT | Functional | The second-oldest high-level language. Invented garbage collection, recursion, and symboli… |
| LiveCode | 2001 | Runtime Revolution | Procedural | HyperCard successor with English-like syntax. Programs read almost as prose. Cross-platfor… |
| LiveScript | 2011 | George Zahariev | Functional | CoffeeScript descendant with more functional features. Pipe operator, partial application,… |
| Lobster | 2013 | Wouter van Oortmerssen | Multi-paradigm | Statically typed language for game scripting. Flow-sensitive typing and lifetime analysis … |
| LOGO | 1967 | Papert, Feurzeig, Solomon / BBN | Procedural | Educational language with turtle graphics. Seymour Papert's constructionist learning visio… |
| Logtalk | 1995 | Paulo Moura | OOP | Object-oriented extension to Prolog. Encapsulates Prolog code into objects with inheritanc… |
| LOLCODE | 2007 | Adam Lindsay | Procedural | Programming language based on lolcat meme grammar. HAI, IM IN YR LOOP, KTHXBYE. Fully Turi… |
| LPC | 1989 | Lars Pensö | OOP | Language used to program MUDs (Multi-User Dungeons). Subset of C with garbage collection. … |
| Lua | 1993 | Ierusalimschy, Celes, Figueiredo / PUC-Rio | Multi-paradigm | Fast, small, embeddable. The scripting language of game engines (Roblox, WoW addons) and N… |
| Lucid | 1976 | Bill Wadge / Warwick | Functional | Dataflow language where every variable is an infinite history of values — a stream. Pionee… |
| M |
| M4 | 1977 | Brian Kernighan & Dennis Ritchie | Procedural | General-purpose macro processor from Bell Labs. Used to preprocess autoconf build scripts,… |
| Magik | 1989 | Arthur Chance / Smallworld | OOP | Smalltalk-inspired language for Smallworld GIS platform. Used globally by energy, utilitie… |
| Marlowe | 2019 | Philip Wadler / IOHK | Functional | Domain-specific language for financial contracts on the Cardano blockchain. Designed by Ha… |
| MATLAB | 1984 | Cleve Moler | Array | Matrix Laboratory. The dominant environment for engineering and scientific computing. Tool… |
| Max/MSP | 1988 | Miller Puckette / IRCAM | Dataflow | Visual dataflow programming for interactive music and multimedia. Patch cables connect aud… |
| MEL | 1998 | Alias Systems / Autodesk | Procedural | Maya Embedded Language. Scripting for Autodesk Maya 3D. Every VFX production studio uses M… |
| Mercury | 1995 | Zoltan Somogyi / Melbourne | Functional | Functional-logic language with a mode and determinism system. Statically infers whether pr… |
| Metal | 2014 | Apple | Procedural | Apple's GPU shading language. C++-based language for writing shaders on iOS, macOS, and tv… |
| Michelson | 2018 | Nomadic Labs | Functional | Stack-based smart contract language for the Tezos blockchain. Strongly typed and formally … |
| miniKanren | 2005 | William Byrd / Indiana | Logic | Embeddable logic programming library. Can run programs backwards — given an output, find t… |
| MiniZinc | 2007 | Peter Stuckey / Melbourne | Declarative | Constraint modeling language for combinatorial optimization. Translates high-level models … |
| MIPS Assembly | 1981 | John Hennessy / Stanford | Low-level | RISC instruction set for MIPS processors. The assembly language taught in computer archite… |
| Miranda | 1985 | David Turner / Kent | Functional | First purely functional language with lazy evaluation and polymorphic type system to achie… |
| ML | 1973 | Robin Milner / Edinburgh | Functional | Meta Language. Invented Hindley-Milner type inference. Parent of OCaml, F#, SML, Haskell, … |
| ML (Standard) | 1983 | Robin Milner et al. | Functional | Standard ML — the formalized, committee-standardized version of ML. Used in programming la… |
| Modelica | 1997 | Hilding Elmqvist / Modelica Association | Declarative | Physical system modeling language. Simulates electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, and therma… |
| Modula-2 | 1978 | Niklaus Wirth / ETH Zürich | Procedural | Pascal's successor with modules, coroutines, and low-level access for OS programming. Infl… |
| Modula-3 | 1988 | DEC / Olivetti | OOP | Module system, garbage collection, and object types. Used at DEC; eventually influenced Ja… |
| Mojo | 2023 | Chris Lattner / Modular | Multi-paradigm | Python superset for AI systems. MLIR-based, GPU-native, ownership semantics. Claims 35,000… |
| MoonScript | 2011 | Leaf Corcoran | OOP | CoffeeScript-like language that compiles to Lua. Brings classes, fat arrows, and implicit … |
| MQL5 | 2009 | MetaQuotes | OOP | MetaQuotes Language 5 for algorithmic trading on MetaTrader 5. C++-like syntax with market… |
| mruby | 2012 | Yukihiro Matsumoto | OOP | Lightweight Ruby for embedding in C applications. Blessed by Ruby's creator. Used in firmw… |
| MUMPS | 1966 | Neil Pappalardo / MGH | Procedural | Database-as-language used in medical records systems. Still powers the VA's VistA EHR used… |
| N |
| NASM | 1996 | Simon Tatham & Julian Hall | Low-level | Netwide Assembler — the most popular x86/x64 assembler. Intel syntax, macro support, multi… |
| NATURAL | 1979 | Software AG | Procedural | Fourth-generation language for business applications on mainframes. Still used in SAP envi… |
| Neko | 2005 | Nicolas Cannasse | OOP | High-level dynamically typed language with a small VM. The foundation of the Haxe compiler… |
| Nemerle | 2003 | Kamil Skalski / Wrocław | Multi-paradigm | .NET language with powerful compile-time macros. Precursor to many macro ideas now in Scal… |
| NetLogo | 1999 | Uri Wilensky / Northwestern | Procedural | Agent-based simulation language. Turtles, patches, and links model complex adaptive system… |
| Newspeak | 2006 | Gilad Bracha / Cadence | OOP | Smalltalk descendant designed for modularity. No global namespace — everything is accessed… |
| Newsqueak | 1988 | Rob Pike / Bell Labs | Concurrent | Language for writing concurrent programs with first-class channels. Ancestor of Limbo and … |
| NewtonScript | 1993 | Walter Smith / Apple | OOP | Prototype-based language for Apple Newton PDAs. Differential inheritance efficiently share… |
| Nial | 1981 | Mike Jenkins / Queen's University | Array | Nested Interactive Array Language. APL descendant with nested arrays and a clean mathemati… |
| Nickle | 2000 | Bart Massey et al. | Functional | Scientific calculator language with ML-style types and arbitrary-precision arithmetic. Des… |
| Nim | 2008 | Andreas Rumpf | Multi-paradigm | Python-like syntax with C performance. Compiles to C, C++, or JavaScript. Powerful macro s… |
| Nit | 2009 | Jean Privat / UQAM | OOP | Statically typed OOP language with global type inference. Virtual types, nullable awarenes… |
| Nix | 2003 | Eelco Dolstra | Functional | Purely functional configuration language for the Nix package manager. Reproducible, declar… |
| Nock | 2013 | Curtis Yarvin / Tlon | Functional | Minimal combinator virtual machine underlying Urbit. Just 32 rules define a complete compu… |
| Noop | 2010 | Alex Eagle / Google | OOP | Google's experimental teaching language demonstrating software engineering best practices.… |
| Nu | 2007 | Tim Burks | Functional | Lisp-like scripting on Objective-C runtime. Builds macOS and iOS apps with Lisp syntax and… |
| O |
| Oak | 1991 | James Gosling / Sun Microsystems | OOP | The original name for Java. Designed for interactive television set-top boxes. Renamed to … |
| Oberon | 1987 | Niklaus Wirth / ETH Zürich | OOP | Wirth's final major language. Clean, minimal, safe. Influenced the development of the Acti… |
| Oberon-07 | 2007 | Niklaus Wirth / ETH Zürich | Procedural | Wirth's final Oberon revision — features were removed rather than added. A philosophical s… |
| Oberon-2 | 1991 | Hanspeter Mössenböck & Niklaus Wirth | OOP | Object-oriented extension of Oberon. Added type-bound procedures (methods) and open arrays… |
| Objective-C | 1984 | Brad Cox & Tom Love | OOP | Smalltalk-style messaging on a C substrate. Built all iOS and macOS apps before Swift. Sti… |
| OCaml | 1996 | Xavier Leroy / INRIA | Functional | Fast, practical functional language with ML's type system. Used at Jane Street, Facebook (… |
| Occam | 1983 | David May / INMOS | Concurrent | Concurrent language built on Hoare's CSP theory. Designed for INMOS Transputer parallel pr… |
| Odin | 2016 | Bill Hall (gingerbill) | Procedural | Systems language with no hidden control flow, manual memory management, and context-based … |
| Opa | 2008 | MLstate | Functional | Full-stack web language: one language for client, server, and database. Strong static type… |
| OpenCL C | 2009 | Khronos Group | Procedural | C-based language for GPU and heterogeneous computing. Write kernels that run on GPUs, CPUs… |
| OpenSCAD | 2009 | Clifford Wolf | Declarative | Scripting language for constructive solid geometry 3D modeling. Describe 3D objects in cod… |
| Oxygene | 2005 | RemObjects Software | OOP | Object Pascal for .NET, Java, Cocoa, and Android. True Object Pascal on modern platforms —… |
| Oz | 1991 | Seif Haridi / DFKI | Multi-paradigm | Multi-paradigm language supporting OOP, functional, constraint, and concurrent programming… |
| P |
| ParaSail | 2009 | S. Tucker Taft | OOP | Parallel language with no pointers and no data races by design. Regions instead of pointer… |
| Pascal | 1970 | Niklaus Wirth | Procedural | Designed to teach structured programming. The dominant teaching language for two decades. … |
| Passerine | 2020 | Isaac Clayton | Functional | Concatenative-functional language with pattern matching and algebraic effects. Compile-tim… |
| PAWN | 1998 | ITB CompuPhase | Procedural | Embedded scripting language for microcontrollers and game engines. Used in Grand Theft Aut… |
| Perl | 1987 | Larry Wall | Multi-paradigm | Practical Extraction and Report Language. Regex-native and TMTOWTDI. Ran the early web's C… |
| Pharo | 2008 | INRIA / Stéphane Ducasse | OOP | Clean, innovative Smalltalk. Live programming environment where you modify a running syste… |
| PHP | 1994 | Rasmus Lerdorf | Multi-paradigm | Runs WordPress (40%+ of all websites), Drupal, and Laravel. The most deployed web server l… |
| Picat | 2013 | Neng-Fa Zhou | Logic | Logic-based multi-paradigm language combining Prolog, constraint programming, and tabling … |
| Picolisp | 1988 | Alexander Burger | Functional | Minimal Lisp with a built-in database and web framework. Lists as the only data structure.… |
| Piet | 2002 | David Morgan-Mar | Esoteric | Programs are bitmap images — color blocks represent instructions. Named after Piet Mondria… |
| Pike | 1994 | Fredrik Hübinette / Linköping | OOP | C-like interpreted language descended from LPC. Used in the Roxen web server. Auto garbage… |
| PILOT | 1969 | John Starkweather / UCSF | Procedural | Programmed Inquiry Learning Or Teaching. Designed to create interactive educational dialog… |
| PL/0 | 1976 | Niklaus Wirth | Procedural | Tiny teaching language from Wirth's 'Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs'. A complete … |
| PL/I | 1964 | IBM | Multi-paradigm | Programming Language One — IBM's universal language meant to replace both FORTRAN and COBO… |
| PL/M | 1973 | Gary Kildall / Intel | Procedural | Programming Language for Microcomputers. First high-level language for Intel 8080. Kildall… |
| PL/SQL | 1991 | Oracle Corporation | Procedural | Oracle's procedural SQL extension. Stored procedures, triggers, packages, and cursors. Cor… |
| Plankalkül | 1945 | Konrad Zuse | Procedural | The world's first high-level programming language — designed 1942–1945, published 1972. In… |
| Planner | 1969 | Carl Hewitt / MIT | Logic | Early AI language combining procedural and logic paradigms. Precursor to Prolog. Influence… |
| Pony | 2014 | Sylvan Clebsch / Imperial College | OOP | Actor-model language with capability types — data races are statically impossible. 'Trust … |
| Pop-11 | 1975 | Robin Popplestone / Edinburgh | Multi-paradigm | AI research language combining Lisp-like flexibility with an ALGOL-like syntax. Core langu… |
| Porth | 2021 | Alexey Kutepov (tsoding) | Stack-based | Concatenative stack-based language inspired by Forth with a Pythonic feel. Statically type… |
| PostScript | 1982 | Adobe Systems | Stack-based | Stack-based page description language. Every laser printer since 1985 speaks it. Enabled d… |
| PowerBuilder | 1992 | Powersoft / SAP | OOP | RAD tool and language for database-driven Windows client/server apps. Dominated enterprise… |
| PowerShell | 2006 | Jeffrey Snover / Microsoft | OOP | Object-based shell and scripting for Windows and cross-platform DevOps. Pipelines pass obj… |
| Processing | 2001 | Casey Reas & Ben Fry / MIT | Procedural | Java-based environment for creative coding and visual arts. Introduced programming through… |
| Prolog | 1972 | Colmerauer & Roussel | Logic | PROgramming in LOGic. Declare facts and rules; let unification find solutions. The canonic… |
| Pure | 2008 | Albert Gräf | Functional | Equational programming language based on term rewriting. Interfaces with Haskell, C, and s… |
| Pure Data | 1996 | Miller Puckette / IRCAM | Dataflow | Visual dataflow programming for real-time multimedia. The free version of Max/MSP. Standar… |
| PureScript | 2013 | Phil Freeman | Functional | Strongly-typed functional language compiling to readable JavaScript. Haskell-inspired type… |
| Pyret | 2013 | Shriram Krishnamurthi / Brown | Functional | Functional-first language designed for CS education. Immediate feedback, contracts, and te… |
| Pyrex | 2002 | Greg Ewing | Procedural | Superset of Python for writing C extension modules. Precursor to Cython. Gave Python the a… |
| Python | 1991 | Guido van Rossum | Multi-paradigm | Readable, versatile, and now #1 worldwide. Dominant in AI/ML, data science, web backends, … |
| Q |
| Q# | 2017 | Microsoft Research | Functional | Quantum-specific language targeting qubits and quantum gates. Integrated with Azure Quantu… |
| QBasic | 1991 | Microsoft | Procedural | Microsoft's BASIC environment bundled with MS-DOS 5.0+. Introduced millions of people to s… |
| Qi | 2005 | Mark Tarver | Functional | Lisp descendant with a built-in sequent calculus type system. Unusually principled approac… |
| QML | 2009 | Nokia / Qt Group | Declarative | Qt Modeling Language. Declarative JSON-like language for fluid animated GUIs. Embeds JavaS… |
| QuakeC | 1996 | John Carmack / id Software | Procedural | Custom scripting language for Quake modding. Bytecode-compiled C-like language. Launched t… |
| QUEL | 1974 | Michael Stonebraker / UC Berkeley | Declarative | Query Language for INGRES relational database. Predated SQL and influenced its design. Mor… |
| Quorum | 2010 | Andreas Stefik / UNLV | OOP | Evidence-based language — every syntax decision was backed by empirical user studies with … |
| R |
| R | 1993 | Ross Ihaka & Robert Gentleman | Functional | The language of statisticians. Rich ecosystem (CRAN) for data analysis, visualization (ggp… |
| Racket | 1994 | PLT Inc. / Matthias Felleisen | Functional | A language lab — the #lang directive lets you build entire new languages. HTDP curriculum … |
| Raku | 2015 | Larry Wall & community | Multi-paradigm | Perl 6 renamed. Grammars as first-class, multiple dispatch, gradual typing. A language poe… |
| Rascal | 2009 | CWI Amsterdam | Functional | Metaprogramming language for program analysis and transformation. Pattern matching on synt… |
| RealBasic | 1996 | Andrew Barry | OOP | Cross-platform BASIC (now called Xojo). Write once, compile for macOS, Windows, and Linux.… |
| Reason | 2016 | Jordan Walke / Facebook | Functional | Alternative syntax for OCaml resembling JavaScript. Compiles to native or JS via Bucklescr… |
| Rebol | 1997 | Carl Sassenrath | Multi-paradigm | Relative Expression Based Object Language. Dialect-based: write parsers and mini-languages… |
| Red | 2011 | Nenad Rakocevic | Multi-paradigm | Full-stack language from system code to GUIs without dependencies. Inspired by Rebol. Self… |
| Rego | 2016 | Styra / Open Policy Agent | Logic | Declarative policy language for cloud authorization. Logic-based rules for access control … |
| Reia | 2008 | Tony Arcieri | OOP | Precursor to Elixir on the Erlang VM. OOP syntax with actor-model concurrency. Tony Arcier… |
| Rescript | 2020 | ReScript Association | Functional | OCaml-based language compiling to readable JavaScript. Blazing-fast compilation, strong ty… |
| REXX | 1979 | Mike Cowlishaw / IBM | Procedural | Restructured Extended Executor. Human-readable scripting for IBM mainframes. Still used on… |
| Rhino | 1997 | Norris Boyd / Netscape | Multi-paradigm | JavaScript engine implemented entirely in Java. Enabled server-side JavaScript before Node… |
| Ring | 2016 | Mahmoud Fayed | Multi-paradigm | Simple, small, and flexible language. Multiple paradigms in one. Designed for productivity… |
| Roc | 2021 | Richard Feldman | Functional | Fast, friendly, purely functional. Faster than Python, friendlier than Haskell. Platforms … |
| Rockstar | 2018 | Dylan Beattie | Procedural | Esoteric language where programs read like rock song lyrics. Numbers encoded in word lengt… |
| Rosette | 2014 | Emina Torlak / UW | Functional | Solver-aided language built on Racket. SAT/SMT solving integrated directly — programs can … |
| RPG | 1959 | IBM | Procedural | Report Program Generator. Built for IBM mainframe business reporting. Runs on IBM AS/400/i… |
| RPGLE | 1994 | IBM | Procedural | RPG IV — modern RPG for IBM AS/400 (iSeries). Free-format syntax, structured constructs, a… |
| Ruby | 1995 | Yukihiro 'Matz' Matsumoto | OOP | Optimized for developer happiness. Pure OOP, elegant syntax, powerful metaprogramming. Rub… |
| Rust | 2010 | Graydon Hoare / Mozilla | Multi-paradigm | Memory safety without GC via ownership/borrowing. Six years as Stack Overflow's most loved… |
| S |
| SAS | 1966 | Jim Goodnight / SAS Institute | Procedural | Statistical Analysis System. Dominant in pharmaceutical clinical trials, finance risk, and… |
| Sather | 1990 | Stephen Omohundro / ICSI | OOP | Eiffel descendant without inheritance — uses 'include' instead. Cleaner semantics without … |
| Scala | 2004 | Martin Odersky / EPFL | Multi-paradigm | Scalable Language. Fuses OOP and functional on the JVM. Case classes, pattern matching, im… |
| Scheme | 1975 | Steele & Sussman / MIT | Functional | Minimalist Lisp with proper tail calls and first-class continuations. Foundation of SICP —… |
| Scratch | 2003 | Mitchel Resnick / MIT Media Lab | Visual | Visual block-based programming for children 8–16. 100M+ registered users. The most popular… |
| Sed | 1974 | Lee McMahon / Bell Labs | Procedural | Stream editor for filtering and transforming text. One-liners for complex text transformat… |
| Seed7 | 1986 | Thomas Mertes | OOP | Extensible general-purpose language. Operators, statements, and types are defined in libra… |
| Self | 1987 | David Ungar & Randall Smith / Xerox | OOP | Prototype-based language where objects clone and modify other objects. Pioneered JIT compi… |
| SETL | 1969 | Jacob Schwartz / NYU | Functional | SET Language based on mathematical set theory. First language to implement for-loops over … |
| Shakespeare | 2001 | Rune Berg & Karl Hasselström | Procedural | Programs read as Shakespeare plays. Characters are variables. Acts and scenes control flow… |
| Shen | 2012 | Mark Tarver | Functional | Qi successor with a built-in Prolog, type checker based on sequent calculus, and a macro s… |
| SIGNAL | 1987 | IRISA / INRIA | Reactive | Synchronous dataflow language for real-time signal processing. Used in avionics and automo… |
| SIMSCRIPT | 1962 | Harry Markowitz / RAND | Procedural | The first discrete-event simulation language. Nobel laureate Markowitz designed it for que… |
| Simula 67 | 1967 | Nygaard & Dahl / Norway | OOP | The world's first object-oriented language. Invented classes, objects, and inheritance for… |
| Smalltalk | 1972 | Alan Kay / Xerox PARC | OOP | The purest OOP language. Everything is an object — integers, classes, the interpreter itse… |
| SML/NJ | 1987 | David MacQueen / Bell Labs | Functional | Standard ML of New Jersey — the canonical SML implementation. Used in PLT research and com… |
| SNOBOL | 1962 | Farber, Griswold, Polansky / Bell Labs | Procedural | String-Oriented Symbolic Language. Pioneered pattern matching decades before regex. Inspir… |
| Solidity | 2014 | Gavin Wood / Ethereum Foundation | OOP | Smart contract language for the Ethereum VM. Billions in DeFi protocols. C++/JavaScript-in… |
| SPARK | 1988 | Bernard Carré / Southampton | Procedural | Ada subset for formal verification and provably correct software. Contracts and absence-of… |
| Spin | 2004 | Parallax Inc. | Procedural | High-level language for Parallax Propeller microcontroller. Eight processor cogs run simul… |
| Spiral | 2001 | Franz Franchetti / CMU | Functional | Program generation system for high-performance signal processing. Generates hardware-optim… |
| SQL | 1974 | Donald Chamberlin & Raymond Boyce / IBM | Declarative | Structured Query Language for relational databases. SELECT, JOIN, and ACID transactions. T… |
| Squeak | 1996 | Alan Kay, Ted Kaehler et al. | OOP | Open-source Smalltalk implementation. Platform for Etoys visual programming environment. S… |
| Squirrel | 2003 | Alberto Demichelis | OOP | Lightweight scripting language with OOP and closures. Used in Valve Source engine and AI s… |
| Stan | 2012 | Andrew Gelman et al. / Columbia | Declarative | Probabilistic programming for Bayesian statistical inference. MCMC sampling and variationa… |
| Starlark | 2016 | Google | Functional | Deterministic Python subset for Bazel build files. No I/O, no infinite loops — hermetic re… |
| SuperCollider | 1996 | James McCartney | OOP | Real-time audio synthesis server and live coding language. Standard for algorithmic compos… |
| Swift | 2014 | Chris Lattner / Apple | Multi-paradigm | Replaces Objective-C for Apple platforms. Optionals, protocols, value semantics, and perfo… |
| SystemVerilog | 2002 | Stu Sutherland / IEEE | Dataflow | Extension of Verilog adding OOP testbenches, assertions, and constrained-random verificati… |
| T |
| TACL | 1975 | Tandem Computers | Procedural | Tandem Advanced Command Language for HP NonStop OS. Scripting for fault-tolerant transacti… |
| Tcl | 1988 | John Ousterhout / Berkeley | Procedural | Tool Command Language — everything is a string. Tk GUI toolkit. Embeddable. Still in netwo… |
| TECO | 1962 | Dan Murphy / MIT | Procedural | Text Editor and COrrector — both an editor and Turing-complete programming language. Ances… |
| Terra | 2013 | Zachary DeVito / Stanford | Procedural | Low-level language meta-programmed by Lua. Write high-performance kernels in Terra, orches… |
| Thrift | 2007 | Facebook | Declarative | Interface Definition Language and code generator for cross-language RPC services. Generate… |
| TI-BASIC | 1990 | Texas Instruments | Procedural | BASIC dialect for TI graphing calculators. The first programming language for millions of … |
| Toit | 2021 | Kasper Lund et al. | OOP | High-level language for ESP32 microcontrollers with OTA updates and a cloud IDE. Dart-insp… |
| TTCN-3 | 2000 | ETSI | Procedural | Testing and Test Control Notation — domain-specific language for telecom protocol conforma… |
| Turbo Pascal | 1983 | Anders Hejlsberg / Borland | Procedural | Blazing-fast Pascal compiler with integrated IDE. Sub-second compile times felt miraculous… |
| Turing | 1982 | Holt & Cordy / University of Toronto | Procedural | Named for Alan Turing. Designed to teach programming to Canadian students. Clean Pascal-li… |
| TXL | 1985 | James Cordy / Queen's University | Functional | Tree transformation language. Programs as grammar plus transformation rules. Used for lang… |
| TypeScript | 2012 | Anders Hejlsberg / Microsoft | Multi-paradigm | JavaScript with a structural type system. The standard for large-scale frontend and backen… |
| U |
| UCSD Pascal | 1978 | Kenneth Bowles / UC San Diego | Procedural | Portable Pascal system using p-code intermediate representation. Ran on Apple II, TRS-80, … |
| Uiua | 2022 | Kai Schmidt | Array | Modern array language with a stack-based model. Unicode glyphs for operations. A fresh tak… |
| Unicon | 1996 | Clint Jeffery | OOP | Extension of Icon with OOP, networking, database access, and 3D graphics. Adds classes and… |
| Uniface | 1985 | Compuware | Procedural | 4GL for cross-platform enterprise database applications. Platform-independent since the 19… |
| Unison | 2019 | Unison Computing | Functional | Content-addressed language where code is stored by hash, not filename. Enables fearless di… |
| Ur | 2009 | Adam Chlipala / MIT | Functional | Functional web language with a type system that guarantees SQL injection and XSS are impos… |
| V |
| V | 2019 | Alexander Medvednikov | Procedural | Simple, fast, compiled. Go-like syntax with memory safety, no GC, and cross-platform compi… |
| Vala | 2006 | Jürg Billeter | OOP | C#-like language that compiles to C via GLib/GObject. For GNOME application development wi… |
| Vale | 2020 | Evan Ovadia | OOP | Generational references for memory management — avoids GC overhead and borrow-checker comp… |
| VBA | 1993 | Microsoft | OOP | Visual Basic for Applications — embedded in Excel, Word, Access, and Outlook. The language… |
| VBScript | 1996 | Microsoft | Procedural | Visual Basic-based scripting for Internet Explorer and Windows Script Host. Dominated Wind… |
| Velocity | 2000 | Apache Software Foundation | Procedural | Java template engine language. Generates HTML, XML, and text from templates with placehold… |
| Verilog | 1984 | Phil Moorby / Gateway Design Automation | Dataflow | Hardware Description Language for digital circuits. FPGA and ASIC design worldwide. Simula… |
| Verona | 2019 | Matthew Parkinson / Microsoft Research | OOP | Research language exploring region-based memory management. Ownership domains allow safe s… |
| Verse | 2023 | Epic Games / Simon Peyton Jones | Functional | Functional language for Fortnite's UEFN scripting. Designed by Haskell's lead architect. B… |
| VHDL | 1983 | U.S. DoD / IEEE | Dataflow | VHSIC Hardware Description Language. Formal hardware design for military, aerospace, and t… |
| VimL | 1991 | Bram Moolenaar | Procedural | Vim's built-in scripting language (Vimscript). Customizes the world's most-used terminal e… |
| Visual Basic | 1991 | Alan Cooper / Microsoft | OOP | Brought Windows GUI development to millions of non-CS programmers. Event-driven forms. Eno… |
| Visual Basic .NET | 2002 | Microsoft | OOP | Fully object-oriented VB on .NET CLR. Interoperable with C#. Still used heavily in legacy … |
| Vyper | 2017 | Ethereum Foundation | Procedural | Python-like smart contract language for Ethereum. Designed to be more auditable than Solid… |
| W |
| WATFIV | 1967 | University of Waterloo | Procedural | Waterloo FORTRAN IV. High-speed Fortran compiler with excellent diagnostics. Standard teac… |
| WebAssembly | 2017 | W3C / Browser Vendors | Low-level | Binary instruction format for a stack-machine VM in browsers. Lets C, C++, Rust, Go run at… |
| WebGL Shading Language | 2011 | Khronos / W3C | Procedural | GLSL ES variant for browser WebGL. Runs vertex and fragment shaders in every JavaScript 3D… |
| WGSL | 2021 | W3C GPU for the Web Working Group | Procedural | WebGPU Shading Language. Safe, portable GPU shading for the WebGPU API. Replaces GLSL/HLSL… |
| Whiley | 2010 | David Pearce / Victoria University | Procedural | Language with flow-sensitive types and verification conditions. Invariants verified at com… |
| Whitespace | 2003 | Edwin Brady & Chris Morris | Esoteric | Language where only spaces, tabs, and newlines are significant. Visible code is ignored. P… |
| Wisp | 2012 | Arne Brasseur | Functional | Whitespace-sensitive Lisp that compiles to JavaScript. Significant indentation replaces pa… |
| Wolfram Language | 1988 | Stephen Wolfram | Multi-paradigm | Symbolic computation engine. Every built-in computes everything — integrals to graphs to i… |
| Wren | 2013 | Bob Nystrom / Google | OOP | Small, fast, class-based scripting language. Clean design documented in 'Crafting Interpre… |
| Wyvern | 2012 | Jonathan Aldrich / CMU | OOP | Language with type members — types defined inside objects. Experiments in object capabilit… |
| X |
| X++ | 1998 | Microsoft / Axapta | OOP | Language for Microsoft Dynamics 365 Finance and Supply Chain (formerly Axapta). C#-like sy… |
| X10 | 2004 | Saraswat et al. / IBM Research | OOP | Distributed parallel language for high-performance computing. Activities and places model … |
| XBase | 1979 | Wayne Ratliff / JPL | Procedural | Database language family starting with dBASE. Includes Clipper, FoxPro, and Harbour. Runs … |
| XL | 2000 | Christophe de Dinechin | Multi-paradigm | Concept Programming language where notation matches the concepts being expressed. Extremel… |
| XQuery | 2007 | W3C | Functional | Query and transformation language for XML and JSON. W3C standard used in native XML databa… |
| XSLT | 1999 | James Clark / W3C | Functional | Functional transformation language for XML documents. Rule-based templates with pattern ma… |
| Y |
| Yacc | 1975 | Stephen Johnson / Bell Labs | Declarative | Yet Another Compiler Compiler. LALR parser generator producing C code. Paired with Lex for… |
| Yeti | 2007 | Madis Janson | Functional | ML-like functional language on the JVM with structural typing and type inference. Interope… |
| Yorick | 1994 | David Munro / LLNL | Procedural | Interpreted language for post-processing scientific simulations. Array-oriented like MATLA… |
| Z |
| Z notation | 1977 | Jean-Raymond Abrial / Oxford | Declarative | Formal specification language based on set theory and predicate logic. Used to specify saf… |
| Zeek | 1994 | Vern Paxson / LBNL | Declarative | Network security monitoring language (formerly Bro). Declarative event-driven scripts anal… |
| Zephyr RTOS DSL | 2022 | Linux Foundation | Procedural | Domain-specific C extensions for the Zephyr embedded OS. Hardware device-tree description … |
| Zig | 2016 | Andrew Kelley | Procedural | Modern C replacement. No hidden control flow, no hidden allocations, comptime metaprogramm… |
| Zinc | 2012 | NICTA | Declarative | Constraint modeling language for combinatorial optimization problems. MiniZinc is its mode… |
| ZPL | 1994 | Bradford Chamberlain / UW | Procedural | Array-parallel language for scientific computing. Single program compiles to both sequenti… |
| Zsh | 1990 | Paul Falstad | Scripting | Z Shell — feature-rich interactive shell and scripting language. Default on macOS since Ca… |